Introduction
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917), a founding figure in sociology, aimed to scientifically study society and understand how social order, stability, and cohesion are maintained, especially in the context of modern industrial societies. For Durkheim, a central concern was the relationship between the individual and society.
This relationship is explored in detail in his early work, The Division of Labour in Society (1893). In this, Durkheim doesn’t just look at labour as an economic process but as a moral and social force shaping the individual’s connection with the wider community.
Society as Sui Generis: The Starting Point
Durkheim argued that society is sui generis, meaning it exists in and of itself, independent of individual will. It is more than the sum of individuals and constitutes a real, objective, and constraining force.
This is most evident in his concept of social facts:
- Social facts are ways of acting, thinking, and feeling that are external to the individual and coercive in nature.
- Examples: laws, customs, religious beliefs, collective morality.
- They shape individual behaviour by setting norms and expectations.
Thus, individuals are born into a pre-existing social structure that shapes their development, aspirations, and roles.
Division of Labour and the Evolution of Societies
In The Division of Labour in Society, Durkheim explores how the growing complexity of societies affects individual-society relations. He identifies two types of social solidarity:
A. Mechanical Solidarity (Traditional societies)
- Found in simple, pre-modern societies (e.g., tribal or agrarian societies).
- Based on homogeneity: people share similar work, beliefs, values, and lifestyles.
- Collective consciousness (shared beliefs and morals) is strong and dominates the individual.
- Individuals subordinate themselves to the group; there is low individual autonomy.
- Law is repressive – it punishes deviations from the collective norms harshly, to protect societal cohesion.
Nature of the individual-society relationship: The individual is absorbed by society. There is conformity, and individuality is minimal. The person is seen as a part of the collective body.
B. Organic Solidarity (Modern societies)
- Found in complex, industrialized societies.
- Based on difference, diversity, and specialization of functions.
- Individuals no longer do the same work; they perform specialized roles (e.g., engineer, teacher, doctor).
- Because of specialization, individuals are mutually interdependent.
- The collective consciousness is weaker, but allows for more individuality.
- Law is restitutive – aimed at restoring disrupted social functions rather than punishment.
Moral and material density (population + interaction) is higher, demanding new moral regulation.
Nature of the individual-society relationship:
The individual is more autonomous, but also more dependent on society. Society gives individuals freedom, but expects moral regulation to prevent fragmentation.
4. Dynamic Density and the Rise of Individualism
Durkheim introduced the concept of dynamic density to explain the transformation from mechanical to organic solidarity.
- As population increases and communication improves, people come into more frequent contact.
- Competition increases, which necessitates specialization.
- This leads to the division of labour, enabling people to perform different roles and depend on each other.
Individualism arises, not as a threat to society, but as a new moral ideal:
Individuals can now develop their personalities and talents, but this is possible only because society provides the moral and structural foundation.
5. Dangers of Disruption: Anomie and Pathologies
Durkheim recognized that modern society is not always smoothly functioning. When moral regulation fails, the individual-society relationship becomes strained.
Anomie: A state of normlessness
- Occurs when rapid social change (economic crisis, industrialization) erodes moral norms.
- Individuals feel disoriented, purposeless, and disconnected.
- This leads to increased deviance, suicide, or crime.
He also identified pathological forms of division of labour:
- Anomic Division – Lack of regulation or moral consensus.
- Forced Division – Inequitable distribution of labour due to coercive institutions.
- Poorly Coordinated Division – Lack of integration among diverse roles.
These conditions disrupt the individual’s trust in society and result in social instability.
6. Education and Moral Integration
Durkheim believed education plays a central role in regulating the relationship between the individual and society.
- It transmits collective values, preparing individuals to participate in society.
- While coercive, it is also necessary to ensure integration and continuity.
In modern society, moral individualism is needed—a belief that respect for individuals is the basis of societal harmony.
7. Summary: Key Points of Relationship
| Aspect | Mechanical Solidarity | Organic Solidarity |
|---|---|---|
| Basis | Similarity | Specialization |
| Collective Consciousness | Strong and uniform | Weak and abstract |
| Individual Autonomy | Low | High |
| Law | Repressive | Restitutive |
| Dependence | Low (self-sufficient individuals) | High (interdependence) |
| Risk | Rigid conformity | Anomie, moral breakdown |
8. Conclusion
For Durkheim, the relationship between individual and society is dynamic. While society shapes individuals through external norms and institutions, individuals also contribute to the evolution of society through their roles and interactions.
Through the division of labour, modern societies achieve a new kind of solidarity—organic solidarity—that balances individual freedom with social interdependence.
But this balance is fragile. If moral regulation fails, individuals may feel alienated and society may face instability. Thus, Durkheim’s sociology ultimately stresses the need for social integration and moral education to ensure harmony between the autonomous individual and the collective society.