Introduction
Positivism in sociology, rooted in the work of Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim, emphasizes the use of the scientific method, objectivity, and quantifiable observation. It treats social reality as an external, objective phenomenon to be studied like the natural sciences.
However, two major perspectives—phenomenology and ethnomethodology—emerged in the 20th century as strong critiques of positivism. Both reject the idea that society can be fully understood through objective observation alone, emphasizing instead the subjective meanings and everyday practices through which individuals construct social reality.
Phenomenology: A Critique of Positivism
Phenomenology, especially as developed by Alfred Schutz, draws from the philosophical tradition of Edmund Husserl. It focuses on the “lifeworld” (Lebenswelt)—the world of lived experience.
Key Arguments:
- Subjective Meaning: Schutz argued that social reality is constructed by individuals through their consciousness and shared meanings, which cannot be fully grasped by positivist, external observation.
- Typifications: People use mental categories (“typifications”) to make sense of the world. Sociologists must understand these subjective categories to grasp social life.
- Multiple Realities: Schutz emphasized that individuals navigate multiple realities—like home life, work, dreams—each with its own logic, which positivism oversimplifies.
Example:
A bus ride may seem like a simple event to a positivist, but to a phenomenologist, it’s layered: passengers construct different meanings—routine, relaxation, or stress—based on their experiences.
Thinker:
Max Weber also influenced phenomenology with his concept of Verstehen (interpretive understanding), emphasizing that sociology must uncover subjective motivations behind action.
Ethnomethodology: A Critique from Everyday Practice
Developed by Harold Garfinkel, ethnomethodology examines the methods people use in everyday life to create a sense of social order and reality.
Key Arguments:
- Social Order is an Accomplishment: Garfinkel argued that order is not imposed externally (as positivists assume), but constructed through interaction.
- Indexicality: Meanings are context-bound; words or actions derive meaning from the specific social setting.
- Reflexivity: Social actions not only reflect reality but constitute it—they create the very order they appear to describe.
Example:
In Garfinkel’s “breaching experiments”, when social norms were deliberately violated (e.g., treating a family dinner like a business meeting), people’s discomfort revealed the unspoken methods they use to maintain social reality.
Thinker:
Garfinkel critiqued Durkheim’s idea of social facts as “things” external to the individual. For him, social facts are not ‘things’ but practices enacted and reproduced in interaction.
Shared Critiques of Positivism
| Phenomenology & Ethnomethodology | Positivism |
|---|---|
| Focus on subjectivity and meaning | Emphasizes objectivity and laws |
| Reality is socially constructed | Reality is external and given |
| Uses qualitative methods | Prefers quantitative methods |
| Emphasizes context and interaction | Generalizes across contexts |
Further Contributions & Thinkers
- Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann: In The Social Construction of Reality, they argued that knowledge and reality are socially produced, challenging positivist notions of universal truths.
- Erving Goffman: Though not strictly a phenomenologist, his dramaturgical approach aligns with these critiques, showing how individuals “perform” roles in everyday life, creating meanings situationally.
Conclusion
Phenomenology and ethnomethodology highlight the interpretive, lived, and constructed nature of social reality. By focusing on how individuals create meaning, they offer a strong epistemological and methodological critique of positivism. They argue that without understanding subjective experience, any attempt to study society will be incomplete and potentially misleading.
While positivism aims for objectivity and general laws, these perspectives remind us that meaning and context are central to human life, and sociology must engage with these to truly understand the social world.