The concept of ‘social facts’ was developed by Émile Durkheim, the founding father of sociology as an academic discipline. Durkheim introduced the idea to distinguish sociological facts from psychological or biological phenomena and to establish sociology as a science independent of philosophy or biology. His classic work The Rules of Sociological Method (1895) outlines the nature and method of studying social facts.
Meaning of Social Facts:
Durkheim defines social facts as:
“Ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion by which they control him.”
This definition highlights four key features of social facts:
- External to the individual:
Social facts exist outside the individual, in the collective life of society. They are not generated by personal will but are inherited from society — like language, customs, laws, or institutions. - Coercive power:
Social facts have a binding or regulatory force. If someone tries to deviate (e.g., violating social norms), they are met with social sanctions, such as ridicule, exclusion, or legal punishment. - General throughout society:
They are collectively shared and not confined to personal experiences. Social facts are recurrent and observable in large sections of society. - Independent of individual manifestations:
While individuals express social facts, these facts are not dependent on individual existence. For example, language exists even before a person is born and continues after their death.
Examples of Social Facts:
- Material Social Facts: Laws, institutions, bureaucracy, demography, architecture.
- Non-material Social Facts: Morality, religion, norms, collective conscience, customs, values.
Why Not All Human Behavior is a Social Fact:
Durkheim clearly distinguished social facts from:
- Biological facts (e.g., hunger, aging, sleep)
- Psychological facts (e.g., emotions like fear, anger)
- Individual preferences (e.g., choosing to wear red)
A personal habit (e.g., nail-biting) or a biological reflex (e.g., sneezing) is not a social fact unless it reflects societal norms or collective expectations.
So, not all facts about human behavior are social facts because:
- Some arise from individual biology or psychology.
- Some are purely subjective with no collective enforcement.
- Some do not exert social control or exist outside the individual.
Method of Studying Social Facts:
Durkheim laid out a systematic methodology for studying social facts, emphasizing objectivity, empirical observation, and scientific detachment:
1. Treat social facts as things
Durkheim argued that social facts must be treated as “things” — objective entities that are external to the observer and can be studied empirically. This was in contrast to the speculative philosophy and psychology dominant in his time.
For example, crime is not to be judged morally but studied sociologically — as a fact that exists in every society and serves certain functions (e.g., reinforcing moral boundaries).
2. Reject preconceptions
The sociologist must avoid personal biases, moral judgments, or theological assumptions. Sociology must be value-neutral in its study of social phenomena.
3. Use comparative method
Durkheim emphasized comparing different societies, institutions, or historical periods to uncover the underlying social causes of a social fact.
For instance, in his study Suicide (1897), he used statistical data from multiple European countries to understand the social patterns behind suicide rates — a behavior often seen as deeply individual.
4. Look for causes in social facts, not individuals
He insisted that the cause of a social fact must be another social fact, not psychological motives or individual will.
For example, higher suicide rates among Protestants (compared to Catholics) were explained by weaker social integration, not personal depression.
Durkheim’s Example: Suicide as a Social Fact
In Suicide, Durkheim identified four types of suicide (egoistic, altruistic, anomic, fatalistic) based on levels of integration and regulation — both of which are social facts. He showed that even deeply personal acts like suicide could have social causes, proving that individual behavior could often be better explained by collective phenomena.
Conclusion:
In summary, while human behavior includes a wide range of actions from biological instincts to individual choices, not all are social facts. Durkheim’s contribution lies in identifying those patterns of behavior that are external, coercive, and collective, and form the foundation of social order.
By advocating the study of social facts as objective realities, Durkheim established sociology as a rigorous scientific discipline capable of explaining society not through opinions, but through empirical, comparative, and structural analysis.
Summary Table: Durkheim’s Social Facts
| Aspect | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Definition | External, coercive, collective ways of acting/thinking/feeling |
| Types | Material (laws, institutions), Non-material (morality, norms, collective will) |
| Key Features | External, Coercive, General, Enduring |
| Not Social Facts | Biological facts, psychological states, personal choices |
| Methodology | Treat as things, avoid bias, use comparison, find social (not individual) causes |
| Example | Suicide studied as a social fact with statistical methods |