Émile Durkheim, in his seminal work The Rules of Sociological Method (1895), introduced the concept of “social facts” as the foundational elements of sociology. He argued that sociology should study social facts just as natural sciences study physical facts.
Definition:
“Social facts are ways of acting, thinking, and feeling, external to the individual, and endowed with a power of coercion by which they control him.” — Durkheim
Characteristics of Social Facts
Durkheim outlined several distinct characteristics of social facts:
1. Externality
- Social facts exist outside the individual.
- They are not derived from personal will or consciousness.
- Example: Language, law, customs, institutions — they pre-exist individuals and continue after their death.
2. Constraint / Coercion
- Social facts exert pressure or moral force on individuals.
- Individuals tend to conform due to fear of punishment, social exclusion, or guilt.
- Example: Wearing clothes in public is enforced not by law alone but also by social expectations.
3. Generality
- Social facts are common to many individuals or the collectivity.
- They are not individual phenomena, but patterns across a society.
- Example: The practice of marriage or religious worship.
4. Objective Reality
- Social facts are observable, measurable, and objective.
- They can be studied like objects in natural science through empirical methods, independent of personal bias.
5. Independent Existence
- Social facts are not reducible to individual acts.
- They exist and operate even when individuals do not consciously recognize them.
Suicide as a Social Fact
Durkheim’s most famous application of his concept of social facts was in his study “Suicide” (1897). Despite suicide being an individual act, Durkheim argued that the rate of suicide in a society is a social fact.
1. Why Suicide Rate is a Social Fact:
a. Externality
The suicide rate exists outside individuals — no one person controls or determines it. It is a social phenomenon observed across different societies and time periods.
b. Generality
It is not about individual motives, but about patterns seen among groups (e.g., Protestants vs. Catholics, married vs. unmarried).
c. Constraint
The rate is shaped by social factors like integration and regulation. These are social forces that influence individual behavior, often without their awareness.
d. Objective and Measurable
Durkheim used official statistics from several European countries to study suicide rates scientifically — proving it can be studied empirically.
2. Types of Suicide and Social Forces
Durkheim identified four types of suicide, based on levels of social integration and regulation:
| Type of Suicide | Cause | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Egoistic Suicide | Weak social integration | Unmarried individuals, Protestants |
| Altruistic Suicide | Excessive integration | Sati, suicide bombers |
| Anomic Suicide | Breakdown of social norms (low regulation) | During economic depression or boom |
| Fatalistic Suicide | Excessive regulation | Prisoners, slaves |
These categories prove that suicide rates are influenced by collective social conditions, not individual psychological states — reinforcing suicide rate as a social fact.
IV. Importance of this Analysis
- Durkheim elevated sociology as a scientific discipline by demonstrating that even the most personal acts can be explained by social structures.
- He shifted focus from individual pathologies to societal causes, laying the foundation for future sociological studies on deviance, mental health, and suicide.
Summary Table: Suicide as a Social Fact
| Feature | Suicide Rate as Social Fact |
|---|---|
| Externality | Exists outside individual control |
| Coercive | Influenced by norms of integration/regulation |
| Generality | Seen across groups and societies |
| Objectivity | Measurable using statistics |
| Scientific Validity | Explained through social integration/regulation |