Foundations of Social Research 1. Meaning and Objectives of Social Research Meaning :systematic and scientific study of social phenomena . It involves formulating hypotheses , collecting empirical data , and analyzing it to understand and explain social behavior, patterns, and institutions.
Objectives :
Explore new social phenomena (e.g., the rise of digital intimacy).Describe social characteristics (e.g., demographic profiling of rural families).Diagnose causes of social issues (e.g., reasons for high dropout rates among girls).Predict future trends (e.g., urban migration patterns).Formulate new theories or test existing ones.
Example : A study investigating why tribal students face difficulties in online learning during the COVID-19 lockdown.
2. Types of Research Type Description Example Basic/Pure Expands theoretical knowledge without immediate practical use Studying “alienation” in capitalist societies Applied Solves specific, practical problems Research on best ways to increase voter turnout Empirical Based on observation or experiment Field surveys on caste discrimination Theoretical Based on abstract logic and reasoning Marx’s theory of historical materialism Longitudinal Studies the same group over time Surveying women’s empowerment in SHGs over 10 years Cross-sectional Snapshot of a population at one point One-time survey on job satisfaction of IT workers Exploratory Preliminary study to gain insight Studying attitudes toward same-sex marriage in India Descriptive Describes characteristics of a group Census data analysis Explanatory Establishes cause-effect relationships Impact of education on fertility rates
3. Basic vs Applied Research Aspect Basic Research Applied Research Purpose Develop theories or enhance knowledge Solve practical problems Example Understanding kinship structures Policy study on effects of MGNREGA on rural wages Focus “Why” and “How” questions “What works” and “How to apply” Usefulness Indirect, long-term Immediate and actionable
4. Empirical vs Theoretical Research Aspect Empirical Research Theoretical Research Basis Observation, experiment, fieldwork Abstract logic, concepts, and reasoning Tools Surveys, interviews, data Deduction, synthesis, analysis Example Studying farmers’ suicides through interviews Durkheim’s theory of suicide Thinker Link Durkheim (used empirical data in Suicide) Marx’s class theory (largely theoretical)
5. Longitudinal vs Cross-Sectional Research Aspect Longitudinal Research Cross-Sectional Research Time Frame Over time (years or decades) Single point in time Advantage Tracks changes and trends Quick and cost-effective Example Studying social mobility in a caste group One-time survey on youth political preferences Limitations Expensive, time-consuming Cannot capture trends or causality well
6. Exploratory, Descriptive, and Explanatory Research Type Goal Example Exploratory Understand new/unknown phenomena Studying rise of influencer culture in small towns Descriptive Describe characteristics or functions Mapping urban slums Explanatory Find reasons and relationships Why unemployment is higher among Dalit youth
7. Positivism vs Interpretivism Aspect Positivism Interpretivism Nature Objective, scientific Subjective, human-centered Methodology Quantitative (surveys, statistics) Qualitative (interviews, ethnography) Reality Exists independently of observer Constructed through meanings and experiences Example Durkheim’s Suicide (correlation between suicide and social integration) Weber’s Verstehen (empathetic understanding of social action) Key Thinkers Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim Max Weber, Wilhelm Dilthey Goal To discover social laws To understand social meanings
Thinkers Connection:
Durkheim (Positivist) : Treated social facts as “things”, used statistical data (e.g., on suicide).Weber (Interpretivist) : Emphasized subjective meanings and Verstehen (empathetic understanding).
Dimension Positivism Interpretivism Emphasis Objectivity, laws Subjective meanings Data Type Quantitative Qualitative Method Surveys, experiments Interviews, observation View of Society External reality Socially constructed reality Example Durkheim’s study of suicide Weber’s Protestant Ethic